Vaccination in conservation medicine.

Unprecedented human population growth and anthropogenic environmental changes have resulted in increased numbers of people living in closer contact with more animals (wild, domestic, and peridomestic) than at any other time in history. Intimate linkage of human and animal health is not a new phenomenon. However, the global scope of contemporary zoonoses has no historical precedent. Indeed, most human infectious diseases classed as emerging are zoonotic, and many of these have spilled over from natural wildlife reservoirs into humans either directly or via domestic or peridomestic animals. Conservation medicine has recently emerged as a meaningful discipline to address the intersection of animal, human, and ecosystem health. Interest in the development of novel vaccines for wildlife encounters important challenges that may prevent progress beyond the conceptual phase. Although notable examples of successful wildlife immunisation programmes exist, depending upon key considerations, vaccination may or may not prove to be effective in the field. When implemented, wildlife vaccination requires a combination of novel zoonosis pathogen management strategies and public education to balance conservation, economic, and public health issues.